Rabu, 28 Oktober 2009


Disini akan saya sharing sedikit survey yang telah di lakukan oleh Sans Institute dan saran dari Bruce Schneier yang merupakan salah satu bos dari Counterpane Internet Security.

Pertama sekali kita anda lihat tentang kesalahan terbesar dari IT department, mengapa sampai security implementasi dapat gagal di suatu perusahaan :

1. Menghubungkan system perusahaan anda ke Internet sebelum melakukan implementasi security dari sisi equipment hardware maupun software.
2. Menghubungkan suatu system yang dalam kondisi testing ke internet dengan default configuration.
3. Tidak mengadakan update terhadap system yang memiliki hole. (cth, service pack dari produk Microsoft)
4. Menggunakan telnet dan protocol lainnya untuk memanage suatu system tanpa enkripsi.
5. Tidak melakukan maintenace system dan back up data yang teratur.
6. Memberikan password kepada user melalui telpon, atau melakukan perubahan password langsung via telpon ataupun user melakukan perubahan password
7. sendiri tanpa melalui protokol authentication yang dapat diandalkan.
8. Menggunakan services yang tidak diperlukan contohnya telnet atau ftp.
9. Mengimplementasikan firewall tanpa "rule" yang benar, misalnya untuk menhentikan suatu request yang sesuai ciri-ciri worm atau network traffic yang
10. berbahaya(DoS).
11. Kegagalan dalam mengimplementasikan software update untuk anti virus.
12. Kegagalan dalam melakukan edukasi/training terhadap user mengenai security yang mereka hadapi.


Dan kesalahan paling besar yang biasa dilakukan oleh BOS anda atau anda sendiri yang menjadi executivenya, adalah :

1. Memberikan pekerjaan untuk menghandle security kepada orang/staff yang sama sekali tidak pernah ditranining atau memiliki pengetahuan mengenai security.
2. Tidak mengerti mengenai hubungan antara information security dan masalah dalam bisnis.Bisanya hanya melihat physical security tetapi tidak tahu mengenai
3. konsekuensi tentang information security yang hancur lebur. Kebanyakan konsep atau NATO (not action talk only)
4. Terlalu bergantung terhadap firewall.
5. Gagal dalam implementasi operasional security. Perbaikan atau system maintenance tidak berlanjut, hanya dilakukan pada tahap-tahap awal saja.
6. Tidak menyadari aset yang dimiliki perusahaan, tentang berapa tinggi nilai yang harus dilindungi.
7. Menganggap bahwa masalah yang terjadi akan selesai dengan cara mengacuhkannya.


Solusi apa yang di sarankan oleh Bruce Schneier dalam menghadapi keadaan tsb atau tindakan prevensi yang harus dilakukan untuk meningkatkan security di perusahaan anda.

1. Penggunaan firewall ( konfigurasi yang harus terus di monitoring, install update security dari vendor untuk meyakinkan bahwa security hole dapat tetap diblok)
2. Menggunakan PKI
3. Enkripsi.
4. Anti-Virus
5. VPNs (virtual private network)
6. Physical Security dengan menggunakan kartu akses atau lainnya
7. User training dan security prosedur yang jelas sehingga user dapat lebih mengerti peran mereka.
8. IDS (Intrusion Detection System) dan log file yang perlu di review.
9. Security monitoring.

Rabu, 14 Oktober 2009

Penggunaan Audio dan Pemanfaatanya
Frekuensi suara yang dapat didengar manusia adalah terletak diantara 20 dan 20,000 Hz. Range ini berbeda-beda secara individu dan umumnya tergantung usia. Biasanya manusia mendengar pada frekuensi sekitar 3,500 Hz. Diatas kemampuan dasar pendengaran ataupun dibawahnya kita sebut sebagai ultrasound dan infrasound.
Ultrasound adalah suara dengan frekuansi diatas batas atas pendengaran manusia 20 KHz. Beberapa binatang seperti anjing, ikan lumba-lumba, kelelawar dan tikus, dapat mendengarkan frekuensi tsb. Hal ini dimungkinkan karena telinga bagian tengahnya memiliki kemampuan lowpass filter, sehingga frekuensi sampai dengan 200 kHz dapat didengar. Hal ini disebut pendengaran ultrasonik.
Infrasound adalah suara dengan frekuansi dibawah batas bawah pendengaran manusia. Beberapa penelitian mengenai suara rendah ini bekerja pada 16 s/d 17 Hz mengarah kepada 0,001 Hz. Pada range frekuensi ini, seismograf digunakan untuk memonitoring terjadinya gempa bumi. Bahkan gelombang laut, gunung meletus, dan pergerakan meteor. Beberapa binatang dapat mendengar frekuensi ini, diantaranya Ikan Paus, Gajah, Badak, Jerapah dan Buaya, walaupun sumber suara tersebut berada jauh dari binatang tersebut.
Beberapa ilmuwan bahkan menemukan fenomena infrasound ini dari pusat pusaran angin tornado yang ternyata menghasilkan gelombang infrasound.

Beberapa soundtrack film memanfaatkan gelombang infrasound untuk membentuk ambience atau suasana dari penonton. Hal inilah pula yang dimanfaatkan oleh Brian “Lustmord” Williams untuk mendapatkan feeling bermainnya.

Penguatan yang dimungkinkan pada telinga manusia adalah berkisar pada batas bawah 0 dBSPL (desibel sound pressed level), biasa diebut threshold of hearing (20 µPa (micropascals) = 2 × 10−5 pascal (Pa). Secara teknis pada 194.09 dB, suara sangat memekakan telinga yang biasa disebut shock wave. Suara yang dapat merusak gendang telinga secara bertahap adalah pada 85 dBSPL, apabila berlangsung selama 8 jam setiap hari. Sedangkan pada 130 dBSPL disebut juga threshold of pain akan menyebabkan pain. Hal ini tentunya bergantung pada pada perubahan usia.


Jenis jenis suara

Noises adalah vibrasi yang tidak umum dan tidak diinginkan yang masuk dalam setiap frekuansi. Noise memiliki aperiodic berurutan dalam gelombang.

Sedangkan suara memiliki gelombang sinus dengan frekuensi dan amplitudo yang tetap yang biasa dinamakan pure tones (tone dengan frekuensi tunggal tanpa muatan harmonik).
Contoh untuk pure tone adalah suara piano, dimana C pada bagian tengah piano akan memiliki frekuensi 440 Hz.

Pitch pada suara adalah range yang mungkin dihasilkan akibat terjadinya gelombang dan membentuk frekuensi jenis suara tertentu.

Frekuansi tersebut dapat dikelompokkan sebagai :

low (bass), biasanya menghasilkan suara yang penuh tenaga dan hangat, misalkan : suara petir, dan tembakan peluru

Midrange, biasanya menghasilkan suara yang berenergi. Pada umumnya orang akan terganggu dengan frekuansi ini, misalnya suara ring telepon

high (treble), biasanya menghasilkan suara yang agak berkualitas yang terdengar jelas dan dikenal asal suaranya. Contoh : suara bel kecil dan simbal.

Frekuensi Kerja Audio

Suatu audio frekuensi (di singkat: AF) bekerja pada frekuensi 20 hertz s/d sekitar 20 kilohertz, dan pada frekuensi inilah dapat didengar manusia.

Salah satu variabel dari frekuensi yang dapat terukur dan secara fisis berosilasi pada range frekuensi ini diantaranya : aliran listrik, tekanan udara ataupun getaran mekanis.

Audio codec

Suatu audio codec adalah sebuah program komputer yang melakukan proses kompresi dan dekompresi dari audio digital yang nantinya didapatkan suatu format audio file dan audio streaming.

Umumnya codec diimplementasikan sebagai bagian dari interface bagi banyak pemutar multimedia, seperti Winamp, Windows Media Player ataupun XMMS.

Dalam konteks yang sama audio codec dapat dianggap sebagai sebuah perangkat implementasi yang bisa berbentuk Card audio, yang dapat digunakan encoding/decoding dari dan ke audio analog menjadi audio digital, atau dikenal sebagai AD/DA converter. Contoh: AC’97 standard keluaran Intel Corp.

Audio compression

Kompresi Audio adalah suatu bentuk kompresi data yang memperkecil ukuran dari file data audio.

Algoritma kompresi audio sangat berhubungan dengan audio codec.
Dalam melakukan kompresi data sangat dimungkinkan terjadinya algoritma “lossless” dan “lossy” sebagai akibat dari kompresi.


Hal-hal berikut akan sering kita jumpai dalam kegiatan kompresi audio :
Lossless compression
Lossy compression
Metode Coding :
Metode Transform domain
Metode Time domain
Aplikasi kompresi
Kegunaan Kompresi
Encoding Perbincangan
Kompresi Lossless

Alasan tempat penyimpanan dan bandwith komunikasi yang mahal lah yang menyebabkan kompresi audio harus dilaksanakan. Format lossless yang sering digunakan adalah FLAC. BIasanya yang banyak memanfaatkan kompresi jenis ini adalah para audio engineer, contoh yang umum digunakan adalah Vorbis atau DST.

Sangat sulit mengelola suatu data yang tidak dikompresi. Bisa dibayangkan besarnya file pada saat perekaman audio yang sangat kompeks dan acak, banyaknya pola-pola musik ataupun pengulangan-pengulangan yang harus dilakukan untuk sebuah orkestrasi.
Codec audio Lossless penggunaannya dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor, diantaranya :

Kecepatan kompresi dan dekompresi
Derajat Kompresi, dan
Dukungan Software dan hardware.
Kompresi Lossy

Video codecs
AVI (Audio Video Interleave) is not a codec, rather it is a container format that many of these codec’s can use.
Lossless data compression
CorePNG
H.264 High Profile supports lossless coding. Implemented by x264
Huffyuv
Lagarith
LCL
MSU Lossless Video Codec
TSCC TechSmith Screen Capture Codec
Lossy data compression

Audio Video Standard (AVS)
Cinepak
Dirac
FORlive[2]
H.261
H.263
H.263v2
H.264, also known as MPEG-4 Advanced Video Coding (AVC)
MainConcept
Nero Digital
QuickTime H.264
Sorenson AVC Pro codec, Sorenson’s new implementation
Vanguard Software Solutions

x264
Indeo
KVCD
MJPEG
MPEG-1 Video
MPEG-2 Video
MPEG-4 Advanced Simple Profile Video
3ivx
DivX
XviD
MPEG-4 Advanced Video Coding is the same as H.264
On2 Technologies VP3, VP6, VP7
Pixlet
RealVideo
Tarkin
Theora
VC-1
Windows Media Video
ASF (Part of the Windows Media Series)
WAX (Part of the Windows Media Series)

Ada terminologi yang berhubungan dengan kompresi level audio, yaitu :
Control
Limiting
Side-Chaining
Multiband compression
Gain compression
Squelch
Limiting

Suatu limiter/pembatas pada audio adalah suatu kompresor berasio tinggi dan secara umum mempersingkat waktu pemrosesan. Pada umumnya para teknisi bidang audio sepakat untuk menyamakan suatu rasio dengan perbandingan 10:1. KOmpresi dan limiting tidak ada bedanya dalam pemrosesan. Yang tampak hanya derajat dan ketepatannya saja. Biasanya para teknisi membagi dengan “harder” untuk limiter, “lower” untuk pembatas/threshold dan “higher” untuk rasio.
Pada prakteknya rasio 50:1 atau lebih, penguatan batas pada audio menjadi limiting yang efektif yang sering digunakan.

Side-chaining
Beberapa kompresor mengimplementasikan side-chaining ini yang menggunakan level dinamis dari suatu input untuk mengontrol suatu level kompresi sinyal audio.
Biasanya hal ini sering dimanfaatkan oleh disc jockeys untuk melunakkan volume music saat dia berbicara. Hal ini dilakukan dengan proses yang terjadi yaitu sebuah frekuensi tertentu dilewatkan highpass filter yang ditrigger pada input side-chain dari kompresor dan volume melemah pada frekuensi tertentu yang dikehendaki namun beberapa frekuensi akan tetap berjalan seperti biasa, sehingga tampak bahwa bass track dan drum track akan bervolume tetap dengan high frekuensi melemah yang digantikan dengan suara DJ yang berbicara.

Multiband compression
Adalah suatu kompresor yang dapat mengaktifkan secara terpisah dari band frekuensi yang berbeda pula.
Hal ini terjadi apabila setiap band memiliki kompresor sendiri dengan threshold, rasio, attack dan release sendiri yang merupakan suatu “mastering tools” dan biasanya terdapat pada digital audio worstation yang dimanfaatkan untuk meningkatkan proses mixing. Beberapa stasiun radio memanfaatkan multiband kompresor ini memberikan style pada siarannya disamping membuat enak didengar oleh kedua pendengaran kita. Dimana proses ini bisa terjadi karena audio band yang memiliki efek penguatan pada output secara konstan berubah-ubah spektral balansingnya.

Sampling
Digital sampling, PCM sampling, atau dikenal dengan sampling adalah suatu proses representasi suatu signal waveform seperti halnya deret bilangan yang merepresentasikan suatu pengukuran sinyal amplitudo. Pada proses sampling ini kita akan banyak membicarakan PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) yang secara umum digunakan baik dalam sistem audio, video termasuk televisi dan jaringan telepon.
Dalam suatu produksi musik, film atau televisi jenis efek audio yang sering digunakan dalam proses perekaman dan amplifikasi diantaranya :
“Echo” – satu atau lebih sinyal yang dilambatkan ditambahkan dalam sinyal aslinya. Biasanya echo akan terjadi pada kisaran 50 ms waktu antara yang diperlambat. Hal ini dapat terjadi dengan implementasi digital ataupun analog. Dalam analog echo dapat dihasilkan dengan cara menunda putaran tape dan atau pemanfaatan spring reverb. Umumnya sinyal diperlambat beberapa detik seolah-olah suara yang dihasilkan adalah seperti suara dalam ruangan yang besar, inilah yang sering disebut dengan reverberation atau reverb.
“phaser” – pemisahan sinyal, dengan menggunakan all-pass filter maka dihasilkan suatu pergeseran fase sinyal antara yang sudah difilter dan yang belum, inilah yang digabungkan. Biasanya phaser ini dihasilkan secara “synthesized” atau efek elektronik pada suara-suara natural, misalkan suara percakapan atau suara manusia yang aneh. Contoh suara dari C-3PO dalam film Starwars, suara aktor aslinya efek dengan phaser.
“chorus” – suatu sinyal delay sebagai akibat penambahan pada suara aslinya dengan perlambatan yang tetap. Tidak seperti echo, biasanya 5 ms dan lebih terdengar. Jika delay terlalu pendek akan terjadi interferensi dengan sinyak yang tidak di-delay, dan akan menghasilkan efek flangging. Sinyal Chorus umumnya digeser pitch-nya untuk mendapatkan suatu harmoni dari suara aslinya.
Hal-hal lain pada Efek Audio
Equalization
Filtering
Overdrive
Pitch shifting
Time stretching
Resonators
Synthesizer
Modulation
Compression
3D audio effects
reverse echo
Hal penting dalam Echo

Dalam audio signal processing dan akustik, hal yang harus diperhatikan dari echo adalah:
Waktu delay tidak kurang dari 1/10 detik, kecepatan suara 343 m/s pada temperatur sekitar 20 derajat Celcius, dengan jarak dinding ke sumber suara 16,2 meter.
Intensitas suatu echo dapat diukur dalam dB relatif terhadap gelombang transmisi secara langsung.
Echo terbagi menjadi desirable (seperti pada sonar) atau undesirable (seperti pada sistem telepon).
Dalam perhitungan komputer suatu echo adalah hasil yang diperoleh dari suatu masukan data berbentuk instruksi yang dieksekusi atau ditransmisikan kembali dari suatu terminal di lain tempat.

Beberapa produk yang memanfaatkan Delay
Behringer memasarkan Edison EX1 processor.
Maven 3D.com memasarkan Effect 3D rendering software.
Prosoniq memasarkan Ambisone VST.
QSound Labs memasarkan QTools/AX
Roland corporation memasarkan RSS-10
Sensaura, soundcard untuk game
Sonaptic specialise dalam Hi-Fi 3D Audio untuk peralatan mobile
SRS Labs dengan WOW Thing, a stereo image enhancer with a built-in exciter dan bass processor.
Waves Ltd memasarkan S1 Stereo Imager
Yamaha Corporation memasarkan YMU786 (MA-7), suatu audio chip untuk mobile phones yang memuat 3D simulator

Audio Storage
Magnetic analogue recording media
Wire recording
Analog magnetic tape
Reel-to-reel tape
4-track cartridge
8-track cartridge

PlayTape (Miniature 2-track tapes)
Compact audio cassette and cassette deck
Microcassette
Digital recording media:
Digital audio tape (DAT)

Digital compact cassette (DCC)
Compact disc (CD)
Minidisc (MD)

Audio file format
any computer storage, for example digital flash memory cards
DVD-Audio (DVD-A)
Super audio compact disc (SACD)

Penambahan effects seperti reverberation, equalisation, flanging dan masih banyak lagi.
High End Audio
Biasanya dalam dunia audio kita sering mendengan istilah “High-end audio”, hal inidapat diartikan sebagai pembentukan kualitas setiap komponen dari audio. Baik sejak proses produksi dengan perekaman berkualitas terbaik / highest fidelity atas original performance, kemudian kualitas pengkuran dan penskalaan pada audiophile publication dan expertnya seperti akurasi, warmth, warna tonal, kecepatan, timbre, ukuran ruang pendengaran, kedalaman pantulan suara, clarity/kejernihan, dll.
Secara teoritis, untuk menghasilkan high-end audio dapat dikreasikan dengan suatu ilusi dan mata tertutup untuk membayangkan keadaan saat suara itu dihasilkan/diproduksi, dan tampilan dari depan pendengarnya, seperti aktualisasi pemusik pada ruang musik. Bisa dilihat perbedaannya antara performansi pemusik di dalam studio dan di luar studio terhadap penyanyinya.
Aplikasi Umum

Para profesional audio secara umum memanfaatkan audio, sejak diproduksi, sangat erat berhubungan dengan loudspeakers, microphones, Mixing consoles, amplifiers, recording dan playback devices seperti DAT atau turntables/PH, dan beberapa peralatan telephony devices.
Aplikasi yang banyak digunakan para profesional tersebut diataranya pada bidang :
broadcasting radio dan TV
audio mastering
sound reinforcement seperti sebuah konser siaran langsung,
DJ performances,
Audio Sampling
public address,
Surround sound movie theatre
piped music, biasanya pada rumah-rumah ibadah.

Pengukuran-pengukuran pada kualitas Audio baik untuk Broadcast, Internet ataupun
Recording dan Live Performance

Frequency response measurement
Audio noise measurement

Headroom
Distortion measurement
Crosstalk measurement
Frequency response
Flutter measurement
Rumble measurement

Jitter (on digital systems)
Impulse response (speakers) (Waterfall plots, MLSSA) (colouration)
Latency (satellite links and codecs) (sound for live video)

Audio noise measurement
Distortion measurement
ITU-R 468 noise weighting
Flutter measurement
Rumble measurement
Loudspeaker measurement
Alignment level
Programme levels
Headroom
Weighting filter
Equal-loudness contour
Fletcher-Munson curves
Sound level meter

Determiners and articels

Determiners and articels

Articles, determiners, and quantifiers are those little words that precede and modify nouns:

the teacher, a college, a bit of honey, that person, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice

Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we're referring to a specific or general thing (the garage out back; A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great deal of confusion). The choice of the proper article or determiner to precede a noun or noun phrase is usually not a problem for writers who have grown up speaking English, nor is it a serious problem for non-native writers whose first language is a romance language such as Spanish. For other writers, though, this can be a considerable obstacle on the way to their mastery of English. In fact, some students from eastern European countries — where their native language has either no articles or an altogether different system of choosing articles and determiners — find that these "little words" can create problems long after every other aspect of English has been mastered.

Determiners are said to "mark" nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three articles, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however, explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve a modifying function. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new adjectives; the determiners (except for those possessive nouns), on the other hand, are well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number. These categories of determiners are as follows: the articles (an, a, the — see below; possessive nouns (Joe's, the priest's, my mother's); possessive pronouns, (his, your, their, whose, etc.); numbers (one, two, etc.); indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both, some, any, etc.); and demonstrative pronouns. The demonstratives (this, that, these, those, such) are discussed in the section on Demonstrative Pronouns. Notice that the possessive nouns differ from the other determiners in that they, themselves, are often accompanied by other determiners: "my mother's rug," "the priests's collar," "a dog's life."

This categorization of determiners is based on Understanding English Grammar by Martha Kolln. 4rth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Company: New York. 1994.

Some Notes on Quantifiers

Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:

#The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:

many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees

#The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:

not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing

#The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing

In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.

There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words). If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin American literature that means that he has some some books — not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books on Latin American literature, that means he doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better go to the library.

Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions and negative statements:

* Much of the snow has already melted.
* How much snow fell yesterday?
* Not much.

Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:

* Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
* Most students apply to several colleges.

Authority for this last paragraph: The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. Examples our own.

An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes a singular verb):

* Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.
* Many an apple has fallen by October.

This construction lends itself to a somewhat literary effect (some would say a stuffy or archaic effect) and is best used sparingly, if at all.






The articels

The articels


The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).


The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:

The moon circles the earth.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:

The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)

If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.

For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.

First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.

A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.

In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:

There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.

Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.

* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.

Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")

When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."

Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.

Principles of Choosing an Article

Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.

Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.


If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.

Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:

* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!

As opposed to. . .

* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?

In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.

Other and Another

Other, Another and “A Whole Nuther”

So often I hear people use the word “nuther” when they mean “other”. Like in “that’s a whole nuther story.”How did this happen?

First, I don’t think that the word “nuther/nother” is being substituted for the word “other” in this expression. Rather, the word “whole” is being inserted between elements of the word another: a-whole-nother.

It could be jocular usage, or it could be an example of metanalysis:

The reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creation of a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or morphological units.

Our word apron, for example, used to be napron, but speakers hearing the words “a napron” thought they were hearing “an apron.” The same thing happened with auger, adder and umpire. Working in the other direction, what we call “a newt” used to be “an ewt(e).”

Some speakers may try to “correct” a whole nuther story to the ungrammatical a whole other story with the result that the latter may become a common usage.

As to how it happened–

“A whole nuther/nother story” has caught on because people who hear it like it.

It also fits the patterns of English speech. The OED, for example, offers several uses of nother, most of them obsolete, but the word has a long history in the language.

The Old English word oþer meant “a second of two.” The merger of an (one) with other is documented from 1225.

Another is different from the other:

another refers indefinitely to any further member of a series of indeterminate extent.

the other points to the remaining determinate member of a known series of two or more.

I don’t think “a whole nuther” belongs in the speech or writing of news announcers or journalists who have a responsibility to adhere to standard usage, but its informal use in conversation doesn’t pain my grammar nerve

Simple Past dan Present Perfect

Simple past tense digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu peristiwa, kejadian, atau kedaan yang terjadi pada waktu lampau

I met my music teacher yesterday.
My mother bought a new carpet last Sunday.
Rendy closed the window five minutes ago.
The students presented their project work this morning.

Kata kerja beraturan (regular verb) dibentuk dengan menambahkan akhiran “d/ed” pada kata kerja pertama (infinitive). Jika kata kerja berkakhiran huruf ”d” atau ”y” akhiran ”ed” diucapkan ”id”.

I wanted to see the Personal Manager yesterday.
He decided to return to Bali.


Kata kerja yang tidak beraturan (irregular verb) tidak dibentuk dengan menmabahkan akhiran “d/ed” pad akata kerja. Kata kerja tidak beraturan mempunyai bentuk tersendiri.

I bought this map last week
She went to Indonesia six weeks ago

Pattern

Kalimat
Affirmative (+)
Negative (-)
Interrogative (?)
Keterangan
I bought a book two days ago
S + Verb bentuk II
S + did + not + Verb I
Did + S + Verb I

Kalimat Verbal
Amy could come to my office yesterday
S + Aux
(could, might, must)
S + Aux (could, might, must) + not
Aux (could, might, must) + S
Kata bantu
I was a student last year
S + To be (was/were)
S + To be (was/were) + not
To be (was/were) + S
Kalimat Nominal
Tanda Waktu :
Yesterday, last Monday, an hour ago, the day before yesterday, last year, last night, in 1945, the other day


Present perfect tense digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu kejadian atau peristiwa yang terjadi pada waktu lampau dan masih berlangsung sampai sekarang.

They occupied the house for ten years.
John has studied English for two years.
My elder brother has worked here for three years

Present perfect tense digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu kejadian atau peristiwa yang terjadi pada waktu lampau dan masih ada hubungannya denganwaktu sekarang atau akibatnya dapat dilihat/dirasakan sekarang.

He has just bought a new motorcycle.
Linda has passed from senior high school
Jack has just left for office

Present perfect tense juga digunakan dengan “this morning, this afternoon, today, this month, this year“ untuk menunjukan bahwa sesuatu kejadian atau perbuatan telah dilakukan berulang-ulang kali

I have tried to contact her three times this morning
The man has visited this city twice this month.
He have smoked six cigarette today.

Pattern

Kalimat
Affirmative (+)
Negative (-)
Interrogative (?)
Keterangan
Wulan has brought my book
S + have/has + Verb bentuk III
S + have/has + not + Verb III
Have/has + S + Verb III
Kalimat Verbal
I have been here since morning
S + have/has + been
S + have/has + not + been
Have/has + S +been
Kalimat Verbal
Tanda Waktu :
Once, twice, just, already, so far, never, ever, many time, this week, for an hour, several times, at last, since

Simple present tense digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu peristiwa, kejadian, kegiatan yang terjadi berulang-ulang atau merupakan suatu kebiasan habit.

I leave for office at 7 every morning.
My brother works five days a week
I get up at 6 a.m. every day.

Simple present digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu fakta (fact ) atau suatu yang merupakan kebenaran umum (general truth).

The sun shines in the east and sets up in the west.
The River Nile flow into Mediteranian.
Cows give milk and sheep give wool.

Simple present digunakan untuk menunjukan sesuatu yang akan terjadi pada waktu yang akan datang jika kita membicarakan suatu jadwal, program dan lain-lain.

The second film begin at 9 p.m.
The first train leaves at 10 a.m.
Tomorrow is Friday.

Pada umumnya, kata kerja ditambah dengan akhiran “s” jika subjeknya orang ketiga tunggal (the third person singular – he/she/it )

I work six days a week


We play tennis every Saturday morning.

John plays tennis every Saturday morning.

Yull works six days a week

Akhiran “es” digunakan pada kata kerja yang akhirnya “ s, ch, sh, o”, jika subjeknya orang ketiga tunggal. Kata kerja yang huruf akhirnya ”y” dan didahului huruf mati, y ditukar dengan ”i”, kemudian ditambah ”es”.

I pass your house every day.

You watch TV.

I study English twice a week

He passes your house every day

She watches TV

He studies English twice a week

Pattern

Kalimat
Affirmative (+)

Negative (-)

Interrogative (?)
Keterangan
I am a teacher
S + To be (am, is, are)
S + To be + not
To be + S
Kalimat Nominal
He plays foot ball
S + Verb I + s/es
S + Do not/Does not Verb I
Do/Does + S + Verb I
Kalimat Verbal
You can go to school
S + Aux (can,may,must, dll.)
S + Aux + Not
Aux + S
Kata Bantu

Tanda Waktu :
always, as a rule, generally, normally, usually, often, every day, every week, every month, every year, every evening, every Monday, in the morning, in march.


Present Continous/Progressive digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu kejadian atau peristiwa yang sedang atau berlangsung saat kita sedang bicara.

Jack is painting the house.
Mother is serving our dinner.
They are working in the garden.

Present continuous tense digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu kejadian atau peristiwa yang bersifat sementara.

Breda is always busy because she is working on her thesis.
Jack is staying in my friend’s flat at the moment.
His elder brother is working in a bank.

Present continuous tense digunakan untuk menunjukan suatu keadaa atau situasi yang berubah-ubah.

The cost of living in our country is increasing.
The population of the world is rising very fast.

Present continuous tense digunakan untuk menunjukan sesuatu yang akan dilakukan di waktu yang akan datang dan telah direncanakan/ditentukan sebelumnya.

Beberapa kata kerja tidak digunakan dalam present tense.Kata kerja yang tidak diguanakan dalam present countinuous :

Belong
Know
Remember
Believe
Love
See
Hear
Need
Seem
Hate
Prefer
Understand
Forget
Realize
Want

Contoh :

Salah Benar
She is knowing them all.
I am understanding what you say.
She knows them all.
I understand what you say.

Pattern

Kalimat
Affirmative (+)
Negative (-)
Interrogative (?)
Keterangan
I am writing the letter now
S + To be + V (ing)
S + To be + not + V (ing)
To be + S + V (ing)
Kalimat Verbal

Tanda Waktu :
Now, right now, to day, soon, at present, this morning, this afternoon, tonight, tomorrow, in a few days

Rabu, 07 Oktober 2009

Other and Another

With Count Nouns

  • an + other + singular noun (one more)
  • another pencil -> one more pencil the + other + singular man (last of set)
  • the other pencil -> the last pencil present other + plural noun (more of the set)
  • other pencil -> some more pencil the other + plural noun (the rest of these)
  • the other pencils -> all remaining pencils
With Non-Count Nouns
  • -
  • -
  • other + non-count nouns (more of the set)
  • other water -> some more water
  • the other + nn-countnoun (all the rest)
  • the other water -> the remaining water
Exercise
1. This pen isn't working please give me another
2. if you're still thirsty, i'll make the other pot of coffe
3. This dictionary has a page missing. Please give me the another one
4. He doesn't need those books. He needs the other
5. These are thirty people in the room. Tweenty are from Latin America and the other are from
other countries
6. Six people were in the store two were buying meat the other was looking at magazines.
7. This glass of milk is sour. Another glass of milk is sour too.
8. The army was practicing its drills. One group was doing artillery other was marching, another
was at attention, and the other was pradicing combat tactics.
9. These are seven students from Japan other are from Iran and the other from other places.
10.We locked at four cars today the first two were far too expensive, but the others ones were
reasonably piced.

Notes
Another and Other are nonspecific while the other is specific if the subject if understood, one omit the noun and keep the determiner and other so that other functions as a pronoun. It is a plural count noun that is omitted, others. The word other can never be plural if it is followed by a noun.

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